Different philosophical schools have represented the self in varied and often contrasting ways, reflecting deep differences in metaphysical, epistemological, and cultural perspectives.

Western Philosophy

• Dualism (Descartes) : The self is a thinking, rational mind distinct from the physical body. Descartes’ famous dictum "I think, therefore I am" underscores the self as an independent, immaterial thinking substance

• Empiricism and Skepticism (Hume) : The self is an illusion, a bundle of constantly changing perceptions without a fixed essence. For Hume, only the theater of consciousness exists, not a stable self

• German Idealism (Kant, Fichte, Hegel) : Kant viewed the self as a "transcendental ego," a noumenon beyond sensory experience, a synthetic unity of consciousness

. Fichte saw the self as an absolute creative substance that posits both itself and the not-self. Hegel emphasized the social and dialectical nature of self-consciousness, where the self includes itself in thought, creating a paradox

• Psychoanalysis (Freud) : The self is fragmented, with the ego submerged in the id and controlled by the super-ego, reflecting unconscious drives and societal constraints

• Phenomenology (Husserl, Heidegger) : The self is the intentional subject of consciousness, actively constituting meaning. Heidegger introduced "Dasein," emphasizing the self's being-in-the-world and care as fundamental structures

• Narrative and Contemporary Views : Some modern philosophers (e.g., Charles Taylor) see the self as a narrative construct shaped by personal and social identity. Others like Patricia Churchland deny the self's existence from a materialist standpoint

Eastern Philosophy

• Confucianism : The self is fundamentally relational and social, defined by its roles and harmony within society. The self is obedient and dependent on others, aiming for social harmony rather than individual autonomy

• Taoism : Emphasizes the ineffability of the self and the universe (the Tao). The self is seen as part of a natural flow, with language and rigid concepts being inadequate to capture its essence

• Buddhism : Denies a permanent, inherent self (anatman). The self is a transient aggregation of five constantly changing aggregates (form, feeling, perception, mental formations, consciousness), emphasizing impermanence and interdependence

• Hinduism : Generally posits an eternal self (Atman) that is ultimately identical with the universal reality (Brahman), contrasting with Buddhist no-self doctrine

Comparison and Contrast

Aspect| Western Philosophy| Eastern Philosophy
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Nature of Self| Often a distinct, individual entity (mind, ego) or illusion depending on school| Generally relational, impermanent, or illusory; sometimes eternal (Hinduism)
Self and Society| Some emphasize individual autonomy (Existentialism), others social spirit (Hegel)| Emphasizes social roles (Confucianism) or unity with cosmos (Taoism)
Permanence| Mixed views: permanent soul (Descartes), no fixed self (Hume), transcendental ego (Kant)| Impermanent, ever-changing (Buddhism); eternal self in some (Hinduism)
Methodology| Rational analysis, phenomenology, psychoanalysis| Introspective, meditative, ethical, and mystical approaches
Existence of Self| Some deny self (Hume, Churchland), others affirm it (Descartes, Kant)| Generally deny a fixed self (Buddhism, Taoism), affirm relational or cosmic self (Confucianism, Hinduism)

In summary, Western philosophy often treats the self as an individual, sometimes immaterial entity or questions its existence, focusing on consciousness and identity, while Eastern philosophy tends to view the self as relational, impermanent, or illusory, emphasizing harmony with others and the cosmos. Both traditions, however, share a rich pluralism and ongoing debate about what constitutes the self