Muslim rulers historically treated conquered non-Muslim peoples through a system known as the "dhimmi" status, which granted legal protection but also imposed certain restrictions and obligations.

Treatment of Non-Muslims under Muslim Rule

• Legal Protection and Religious Freedom : Non-Muslims, especially "People of the Book" (Jews, Christians, and later others like Zoroastrians and Hindus), were generally allowed to continue practicing their religion and govern themselves under their own laws for internal matters, such as Jewish Halakhic courts or the Ottoman millet system

. Prophet Muhammad himself advocated for religious freedom and justice toward non-Muslims within the Islamic state

• Payment of Jizya Tax : Non-Muslims were required to pay a poll tax called jizya , which was a symbol of their submission to Muslim rule but also obligated the Muslim authorities to protect their lives and property. Certain groups such as women, children, the elderly, and travelers were exempt

. The tax was sometimes seen as a burden, but in some cases, it was lighter than previous regimes' taxes, leading some to prefer Muslim rule

• Restrictions and Social Status : Dhimmis were considered second-class citizens with social and symbolic restrictions. These included prohibitions on public religious displays (e.g., loud prayers, church bells), restrictions on building or repairing places of worship without Muslim consent, and sometimes distinctive dress or markings to differentiate them from Muslims

. They were also generally prohibited from converting Muslims and faced legal limitations such as not inheriting from Muslims

• Variable Enforcement and Treatment : The degree of tolerance and enforcement of restrictions varied by time and place. Some rulers were more lenient and inclusive, even employing non-Muslims in government roles, while others enforced stricter rules and humiliation policies

. For example, the Muslim sultans and Mughals in Bengal applied relatively liberal and accommodative policies toward non-Muslims without forcing conversions

• Marriage and Conversion Rules : Muslim men could marry dhimmi women who retained their religion, but their children were raised Muslim. Muslim women could not marry dhimmi men unless the men converted

• Practical Coexistence : Despite restrictions, many non-Muslims thrived economically and politically under Muslim rule. Jewish bankers and scholars were influential in some Islamic courts, and in some regions, non-Muslims preferred Muslim governance to previous rulers due to lighter taxation and relative stability

In summary, Muslim rulers generally allowed conquered non-Muslims to live under their own laws and practice their religion in exchange for paying the jizya tax and accepting a subordinate social status. Treatment ranged from tolerant and accommodating to restrictive and humiliating depending on the ruler and era, but forced conversions were officially prohibited