Feudalism was a medieval political, social, and economic system that organized society around hierarchical obligations tied to land ownership. It emerged in Europe after the fall of the Western Roman Empire and persisted roughly from the 9th to the 15th centuries, though the exact dates and definitions vary among historians. The core idea was a web of reciprocal duties between lords and vassals, anchored by land grants (fiefs) in exchange for military service, advice, or other forms of support, with peasants or serfs working the land in return for protection and a place to live. Key features

• Lords, vassals, and fiefs: A lord granted land to a vassal, who owed loyalty and military service in return. The land itself was the fief.
• Homage and fealty: Vassals would sworn oaths of loyalty to their lords, binding themselves to provide specified services.
• Military obligations: The system prioritized local military readiness, with vassals supplying knights or soldiers as needed.
• Manor economy: Much of daily life and production occurred within manors, where peasants worked the land and paid rents or duties to the lord.
• Layered hierarchy: The chain could extend from a king down through powerful dukes and counts to lords, with multiple vassalages unfolding below each tier.

Variations and debates

• Narrow vs broad definitions: Some scholars emphasize the tight legal-military framework among nobility, while others view feudalism as a broader set of social and economic practices, including the peasantry’s obligations and the manorial system.
• Non-European counterparts: The term has been applied, with caution, to other medieval contexts (e.g., Japan) to describe analogous systems, though the specific institutions differ.

Modern perspectives

• Feudalism is a historiographic construct devised long after the period to describe recurring patterns of landholding and reciprocal obligation, rather than a single, uniformly practiced system. Many historians stress that it was not a uniform, all-encompassing regime but a useful framework for understanding medieval politics, society, and economy.